Jacobkrishnak(Make Paper)

Ancient Egyptians invented the first substance like the paper we know today called Papyrus. Papyrus scrolls were made by taking slices of the inner part of the papyrus stem, flattening then pounded into a hard, thin sheet. The word "paper" comes from the word "papyrus". The Paper that we know today was invented by Ts'ai Lun in A.D. 105, It is believed that he mixed hemp, mulberry bark, and rags with water, mashed it into a pulp, pressed out the liquid and hung it to dry in the sun.
Paper was born and this humble mixture would set off one of mankind's greatest communication revolutions.

Today there is a revival in homemade papermaking crafts. Not only is it a fun experience for you and the kids, but it's a good way to recycle waste into wonderful possibilities.

Below you will find a simple papermaking recipe to get you started. If this is the first time you are making paper, don't be afraid to experiment with different fibers, you don't have to stick with paper related products. Add whole flower heads to the pulp mixture after it has been through the blender. You can add scraps of yarn, tin foil, even seeds. Its all comes down to what you want.



Experiment with different textures and colors after all Ts'ai Lun did! Remember, some of your ideas will turn out while others may not. Have fun with it, express your creativity.


Simple Recipe:

Many types of paper that can be used include:

* Computer Paper (unprinted)
* Newspaper (If you want a grayish colored paper)
* Magazines
* Egg Cartons
* Old Cards (For heavier paper)
* Toilet Paper
* Paper Bags
* Non Waxed Boxes (Pre-soak in warm water)
* Office Paper
* Tissue Paper (For finer paper)
* Typing Paper
* Napkins
* Construction Paper

Supplies you'll need:

* Sponge
* Window Screening (mold)
* Wood Frame (old picture frame can be used too) (deckle)
* Plastic Basin/Tub (Large enough to totally immerse frame)
* Blender/Food Processor (For making paper pulp)
* White Felt or Flannel Fabric
* Staples or Tacks (For tacking screen on frame)
* Liquid starch (optional)

Instructions:

1. Select the pieces of paper to be recycled. You can even mix different types to create your own unique paper.

2. Rip the paper into small bits, and place into the blender. (about half full). Fill the blender with warm water. Run the blender slowly at first then increase the speed until the pulp looks smooth and well blended. ( 30 -40 seconds) Check that no flakes of paper remain. If there are, blend longer.

3. The next step is to make a mold. The mold, in this case, is made simply by stretching fiberglass screen (plain old door and window screen) over a wooden frame and stapling it. It should be as tight as possible.

4. Fill the basin about half way with water. Add 3 blender loads of pulp. (the more pulp you add the thicker the finished paper will be) Stir the mixture.

5. Now is the time to add the liquid starch for sizing.(This is not necessary but if the paper is going to be used for writing on, you should add some, the starch helps to prevent inks from soaking into the paper fibers.) Stir 2 teaspoons of liquid starch into the pulp.

Place the mold into the pulp and then level it out while it is submerged. Gently wiggle it side-to-side until the pulp on top of the screen looks even.

6. Slowly lift the mold up until it is above the level of the water. Wait until most of the water has drained from the new paper sheet. If the paper is very thick, remove some pulp from the tub. If it is too thin, add more pulp and stir the mixture again.

7. When the mold stops dripping, gently place one edge on the side of a fabric square (felt or flannel square). Gently ease the mold down flat, with the paper directly on the fabric. Use a sponge to press out as much water as possible. Wring the excess water from the sponge back into the large plastic tub.

8. Now comes the tricky part. Hold the fabric square flat and slowly lift the edge of the mold. The wet sheet of paper should remain on the fabric. If it sticks to the mold, you may have pulled to fast or not pressed out enough water. It takes a little practice. You can gently press out any bubbles and loose edges at this point.

9. Repeat the steps above, and stack the fabric squares on a cookie sheet. Save one fabric square to place on the top of the stack to cover the last piece of paper. Use another cookie sheet to press the remaining water out of the stack. (do this outside or in the bathtub, it can make a mess)

10. After you press the stack, gently separate the sheets. They can be dried by hanging on a clothesline or laying them out on sheets of newspaper. When they have dried peel them off the fabric and voila! you have paper!

Born: June 5, 1971

Before he started acting, Mark Wahlberg was best known as Marky_Mark, the pants-dropping rapper who attained fame and notoriety with his group the Funky Bunch. In the tradition of Will_Smith and Ice_Cube, Wahlberg has made a successful transition from music to film, garnering particular early praise for his role in Boogie_Nights.


Born June 5, 1971, in Dorchester, MA, Wahlberg had a troubled early life. One of nine children, he dropped out of school at 16 (he would later earn his GED) and committed a number of minor felonies.
 After working various odd jobs, Wahlberg briefly joined brother Donnie and his group New Kids on the Block before forming his own, Marky Mark & the Funky Bunch. The group had widespread popularity for a time, most notably with its 1992 hit single "Good Vibrations." However, it was Wahlberg himself who received the lion's share of attention, whether it was for the homophobia controversy that surrounded him for a time, or for the 1992 Calvin Klein ad campaign featuring him wearing nothing more than his underwear, Kate_Moss, and an attitude. In 1993, Wahlberg turned his attentions to acting with a role in The_Substitute.
 The film, co-starring a then-unknown Natasha_Gregson_Wagner, was a critical and commercial failure, but Wahlberg's next project, 1994's Renaissance_Man, with Danny_De_Vito, gave him the positive notices that would increase with the release of his next film, The_Basketball_Diaries (1995). Although the film received mixed reviews, many critics praised Wahlberg's performance as Mickey, Leonardo_Di_Caprio's friend and fellow junkie. Following Diaries, Wahlberg appeared in Fear (1996) in the role of Reese_Witherspoon's psychotic boyfriend.


It was with the release of Paul_Thomas_Anderson's Boogie_Nights in 1997 that Wahlberg finally received across-the-board respect for his commanding yet unassuming performance as busboy-turned-porn-star Eddie Adams/Dirk Diggler. The film was nominated for three Oscars and a slew of other awards by associations ranging from the British Academy to the New York Film Critics Circle to MTV. The positive attention landed Wahlberg on a wide range of magazine covers and gave him greater Hollywood pulling power.
 He had, as they say, arrived. Wahlberg's follow-up to Boogie_Nights was 1998's The_Big_Hit, an action comedy that, particularly in the wake of Boogie_Night's acclaim, proved to be a disappointment. This disappointment was hardly lessened by the relative critical and commercial shortcomings of Wahlberg's next film, The_Corruptor (1999).
 An action flick that co-starred Chow Yun-Fat, The_Corruptor showcased Wahlberg's familiar macho side and indicated that success in Hollywood is a strange and unpredictable thing. Though he gained positive notice for his role in David_O._Russell' s unconventional war film Three_Kings the same year, the film was only a moderate success, paving the way for an even more dramatic turn in the downbeat true story of the ill-fated Andrea Gail, The_Perfect_Storm, in 2000.


The following year found Wahlberg filling some big shoes -- and receiving some hefty criticism as a result -- with his lead role in Tim_Burton's much-anticipated remake of Planet of the Apes. Taking over the role that Charlton_Heston made famous, Wahlberg found himself pursued onscreen by sinister simians, as well as offscreen by critics who decried the lack of depth that the actor brought to the role.
 Late that summer, Wahlberg came back down to Earth -- specifically to the everyday-Joe-rises-to-fame territory of Boogie_Nights -- with Rock_Star, the story of a tribute-band singer who gets a chance to sing for the band he idolizes. Though his noble attempt to fill the considerable shoes of Hollywood legend Cary_Grant in the 2002 Charade remake The_Truth_About_Charlie would be only slightly exceeded by his assumption of the role originally played by Michael_Caine in the following year's remake of The_Italian_Job, Wahlberg would subsequently prove that there's nothing like the fresh breeze of an original script in director David_O._Russell's existential 2004 comedy I_Heart_Huckabees.
 Of course, Wahlberg was never one to let a crowd down, and after riling audiences alongside Tyrese_Gibson and André_Benjamin in the Detroit-based revenge flick Four_Brothers, the athletic actor would take to the gridiron to tell the inspirational story of one football fan whose dreams of playing in the NFL actually came true in the 2006 sports drama Invincible. Also released in the fall of 2006, The_Departed allowed Wahlberg to act opposite such heavy hitters as Jack_Nicholson, Matt_Damon, Alec_Baldwin, and his old Basketball_Diaries co-star Leonardo_Di_Caprio under the direction of Martin_Scorsese. Not only did Wahlberg hold his own against the cast of critics' darlings, he landed the film's only acting Academy Award nod. In 2007, Wahlberg starred in the suspense actioner The_Shooter, as well as in director Peter Jackson's adaptation of The Lovely Bones.
 Wahlberg starred as the leader of a ragtag group trying to survive amidst murderous plant life in M. Night Shyamalan's so-bad-it's-good The Happening (2008), and played the titular role of Max Payne, which was adapted from a video game of the same name. In 2010 the actor starred in the inspirational docudrama chronicling the life of brothers Micky and Dicky Ecklund as they take on the world of boxing.

jacobkrishnak {Prehistoric Life}

                                 More Than 3800 million years ago (mya) as Earth cooled, liquid water prouced oceans in which small single-celled organisms evolved.
 Many believe that this marked the first ever signs of life. These early beginnings are called "prehistory", because they happened before recorded history.
 Much of our evidence of early life coes from fossils. Using this evidence, palaeontologists divided Earth's prehistory into time spans called eras, and eras into periods.

Paleozonic era
 
In the early part of the Cambrian (570 to 510 mya), Life was mostly confined to the tree-ferns, and club mosses such as Lepidodendron. By the Permian period(290 to 245 mya) , much of the land was covered by desert.

In the beginning
 
Fossil prokaryotes (simple single cells)   have been found in 3,400- to 3,300- million-year-old rocks in Australia and South Africa. Some of these such as the blue -green bacteria,formed strings of cells and produced layered mounds called stromatolites.

First Plants

Until the end of the Silurian period (439 to 408 mya), most plants lived in water The oldest known plant. cooksonia, developed a rigid stem for carring water from roots, allowing it to thrive on land

Invasion of the Land

As plants moved on to land, invertebrate animals followed, oxygen levels and drier conditions. The first were  the arthropods.Some, such as Acantherpestes,probably survived the same way millipedes do today. by feeding on decomposing plants. Amphibians and reptiles followed the arthropods.   

Early birds

       


Birds with feathers developed early in the evolution of which they are closely related. Early birds, bird Archaropteryr, may have used their feathers for insulation or display, as well as flight. 


                                                                                                     continue my next post...........  





 

ILAYARAJA Biography

Born On: June 2, 1943
Born In: Theni district, Tamil Nadu
Nationality: Indian
Career: Music Director

Ilayaraja is a veteran music director of South Indian film industry. The music maestro has composed over 4000 songs and worked in over 800 films, in a career spanning over three decades. He is accredited with setting a trend for film music in South India, by introducing Western musical nuances into songs. Apart from Tamil, he has also worked in Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada and Hindi films as a music director. The musician has been awarded the title of Isaignani ('savant of music').

Childhood
Ilaiyaraaja was born on June 2, 1943 in a poor family living in a small village “Pannaipuram”, located in Theni district of Tamil Nadu, India. He was originally named Gnanadesikan by his father Ramaswamy and mother Chinnathayammal. Ilaiyaraaja spent his childhood in the rural area of Pannaipuram, which sowed the seeds of music in him. He was well acquainted with the range of Tamil folk music prevalent in the place.

Early Life
At the age of 14, Ilaiyaraaja joined the musical troupe owned by his elder step-brother, Pavalar Varadarajan, and was associated with it for the next ten years. Ilayaraja composed his first song - an elegy written by veteran Tamil poet Kannadasan - when he was still working with the troupe. In 1968, Ilayaraja collaborated with Professor Dhanraj to start a music course in Madras. The course concentrated at the overview of Western classical music, study of techniques related to composition of music and instrumental performance. After specializing in classical guitar, Ilayaraja went on to pursue a course in the same, at the Trinity College of Music, London.

As An Instrumentalist
Ilayaraja worked with a band-for-hire in Chennai, as a guitarist in the 1970s. Thereafter, he worked as a session guitarist, keyboardist and conducted the orchestra for renowned film music directors, including Salil Chowdhury. Later on, Ilayaraja worked as an assistant to Kannada music director G K Venkatesh, with whom he worked on around 200 films. While working with him, Ilayaraja penned his own music compositions as well. He listened to his own compositions by asking the session musicians to play excerpts from his scores. In the meantime, he also hired instruments from R K Shekhar (AR Rahman’s father), who later on joined the orchestra as its keyboardist.

As A Music Director
Ilayaraja made an entry into film music direction in 1976, by composing the songs and background score for the Tamil film “Annakkili”. His music reached wide across the Tamil audience. He used the technique of the modern film music orchestration to breathe life into the Tamil poetry written by the lyricists. Folk song melodies composed by Ilayaraja became a big hit amongst the music lovers soon. The songs of his films, including “Pathinaru Vayathinile” (1977), “Bhuvana Oru Kelvikkuri” (1977) and “Annai Oru Aalayam” (1979), were amongst the super hits during the initial years of his career as a music director.

During the mid 1980s, Ilaiyaraaja composed film songs that proved to be the evergreen hits of the period. The songs composed by Ilaiyaraaja in “Moondram Pirai” (1982),   “Payanangal Mudivathillai” (1982), “Munthanai Mudichu” (1984), “Sagara Sangamam” (1983), “Nallavanukku Nallavan” (1984), “Muthal Mariyathai” (1985), “Padikkathavan” (1985), “Sindhu Bhairavi” (1986), “Mouna Ragam” (1986), “Punnagai Mannan” (1986), “Nayakan” (1987), “Apoorva Sahodarargal” (1989) and “Rudra Veenai” (1989) are still fresh in the minds of music lovers. Slowly, he started gaining repute amongst the topmost music composers of South Indian film industry.

The early 1990s fetched same accolade for Ilayaraja. Some of his best works in the 1990s include “Anjali” (1990), “Thalapathi” (1991), “Michael Madana Kamarajan” (1991), “Guna” (1992), “Thevar Magan” (1992), “Magalir Mattum” (1994), “Sirai Chaalai” (1996) and “Sethu” (1999). With the advent of the new millennium, although Ilayaraja reduced his countless number of movies in a year to a handful, the magic in his songs continued. Apart from showing his dexterity as a composer in Tamil films, Ilayaraja also composed the music for several Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada and a few Hindi films as well.

Personal Life
Ilayaraja is married to Jeeva and has two sons and a daughter. His sons, Karthik Raaja and Yuvan Shankar Raaja are regarded as two of the best music directors of the present generation. His daughter, Bhavathaarini, is a playback singer. Ilayaraja’s brother - Gangai Amaran - is a renowned director-lyricist and music composer.

Awards
National Film Award for Best Music Direction : “Saagara Sangamam” (1984), “Sindhu Bhairavi” (1986) and “Rudraveena” (1989)
Gold Remi Award for Best Music Score : “Vishwa Thulasi” (2005)
Kalaimamani Award from the Government of the State of Tamil Nadu, India
State Government Award from Government of Kerala in 1995
Madhya Pradesh State Award in 1998
NTR National Award in 2004
Filmography

Tamil
1976: Annakili , Athirshtam Azhaikkirathu , Badra Kali , Paalooti Valartha Kili , Uravaadum Nenjam
1977: Alukkoru Aasai, Avar Enakke Sontham, Bhuvana Oru Kelvikkuri, Dheepam, Dhurga Dhevi, Pathinaru Vayathinile, Thunaiyiruppaal Meenatchi
1978: Sigappu Rojakkal, Kaatrinile Varum Geetham, Kizhake Pogum Rail, Mullum Malarum, Tripura Sundari, Vaazha Ninaiththaal Vaazhalaam, Vattathukkul Chathuram
1979: Aarilirindhu Aruvathu Varai, Agal Vilakku, Annai Oru Aalayam, Chella Kili, Devathai, Nallathoru Kudumbam, Ponnu Oorukku Pudhusu, Poonthalir, Sakkalathi, Thai Illamal Naan Illai,
1980: Murattu Kaalai, Naan Potta Savaal, Nadhiye Thedi Vandha Kadal, Nizhalgal, Orey Muththam, Ponnagaram, Rishi Moolam, Rusi Kanda Poonai, Samanthi Poo, Ullasa Paravaigal
1981: Indru Poyi Naalai Vaa, Netri Kann, Panneer Pushpangal, Pennin Vazhkai, Raaja Paarvai, Rama Lakshman, Ranuva Veeran, Sollaathey Yaarum Keyttaal
1982: Moondram Pirai, Auto Raja, Azhagiya Kanney, Eera Vizhi Kaaviyangal, Engeyo Ketta Kural, Gopurangal Saayvathillai, Hitler Umanath, Ilanjodigal, Kalyana Kalam, Kathal Ovium, Kavitha Malar, Payanangal Mudivathillai, Pokkiri Raja, Ranga, Sakala Kala Vallavan,
1983: Aayiram Nilavae Vaa, Adutha Varisu, Andha Sila Naatkal, Ilamai Idho Idho, Ilamai Kaalangal, Thanga Magan, Thoongathey Tambi Thoongathey
1984: Anbulla Rajanikant, Irupatthi Naalu Mani Neram, Jappanil Kalyanaraman, Munthanai Mudichu, Nallavanukku Nallavan, Neengal Kettavai, Oru Kaidhiyin Diary, Vaidehi Kaathirundaal, Vazhkai, Vellai Pura Ondru
1985: Kaakki Sattai, Kanni Raasi, Meendum Paraasakthi, Muthal Mariyathai, Padikkathavan, Pagal Nilavu, Poove Poochudava, Pudhiya Theerppu, Raaja Gopuram, Sree Raaghavendra, Thanga Mama
1986: Kadolara Kavithaigal, Mela Thiranthathu Kadhavu, Mouna Ragam, Mudhal Vasantham, Murattu Karangal, Pudhir, Punnagai Mannan Saadhanai,
1987: Nayakan, Poovizhi Vasalile, Puyal Padam Pattu, Sirai Paravai, Theertha Karayinile, Ullam Kavarntha Kalvan, Vazha Vazharka   Velaikkaaran, Vetri Vizha
1988: Rudra Veenai, Agni Nakshatram, Chinnabaabu, En Bommukutty Ammavukku, Enga Ooru Kaavakkaaran, En Jeevan Paaduthe, Guru Sisyan,
1989: Apoorva Sahodarargal, Ashoka Chakravarthy En Purushan Thaan Thendral Sudum, Thiruppu Munai, Vaadyaar Veettu Pillai, Varusham Padhinaaru
1990: Anjali, Edhir Katru, Engitte Modhathe, My Dear Marthandan, Nadigan, Nee Siriththaal Dheepaavalli, Nilapennay, Raja Kaiye Vacha, Sirayil Sila Raagangal, Thaalaattu Paadava,
1991: Thalapathi, Chinna Gounder, Chinna Thambi, Dharma Dorai, Idhayam, Irumbup Pookkal, Karpoora Mullai, Kumbakarai Thangaiah, Michael Madana Kamarajan, Thaalaattu Kekkuthamma, Thaayamma
1992:  Agni Paarvai, Dharma Kshetram, Enrum Anbudan, Guna, Idu Namma Bhoomi, Innisai Mazhai, Ricksha Mama, Singaaravelan, Thevar Magan, Thirumathi Pazhanichami, Villu Paattu Karan
1993: Ejamaan, Mahanadi, Maharasan, Mamiyaar Veedu, Manikkuyil, Parvathi Ennai Paaradi, Walter Vetrivel
1994: Adhiradippadai, Allari Police, Amaidhi Padai, Honest Raj, Kanmani, Magalir Mattum, Sethupathi I.P.S,
1995: Makkal Aatchi, Nattupura Pattu, Oru Orle Oru Rajakumari, Paattu Paadava, Paattu Vaathiyaar, Periya Kudumbam, Sathi Leelavathi
1996: Sirai Chaalai, Katta Panchayathu Kuruthipunal, Poomani, Poovarasan, Vasantham
1997: Devathai, Kaadhalukku Mariyaadai, Kadavul, Thambi Durai, Thenmaangu Paattu Karan, Vasuki
1998: Anthahpuram, Deseeya Geetham, Dharma, Kaadhal Kavidai, Kumbakonam Gopalu, Senthooram Thalaimurai, Veera Thaalaattu
1999: Friends, Kummi Paattu, Manam Virumbuthey Unnai, Mugam, Nilavey Mugam Kaattu, Ponnu Veetukkaran, Sethu, Thodarum
2000: Hey Ram, Bharathi, Ilaiyavan, IPC 215, Kaadhal Rojave, Kaakai Chirakiniley, Kelviyin Nayagan, Puratchi
2001: Friends, Kutty
2002: Azhagi, En Mana Vaanil, Ramana, Solla Marantha Kathai
2003: Manasellaam, Julie Ganapathy, Pithamagan
2004: Vishwa Thulasi, Shiva Shankar, Virumandi, Kamaraj
2005: Athu Oru Kanaa Kaalam, Oru Naal Oru Kanavu, Mumbai Express, Twinkle Twinkle Little Star
2006: Azhagai Irukirai, Bayamai Irukiradhu, Shiva
2007: Sooryan
Malayalam
1977: Vyamoham
1978: Aaru Manikkoor,Achchanai
1980: Dhooramarigey, Manju Moodal Manju
1982: Alolam, Olangal
1983: Aa Rathri, Sandhyakku Virinja Poovu
1984: Janavari Onnu, Mangalam Nerunnu, My Dear Kuttichaathan
1985: Yathra
1986: Poomukhappadiyil Ninneyum Kathu, Aappirikaavil Appu          
1988: Moonnam Pakkam
1989: Adharvam
1991: Anaswaram, Ente Sooryaputhrikku
1992: Pappayude Swantham Appoos, Kalikaalam
1996: Kala Pani
1997: Guru, Kaliyoonjal, Oru Yaatra Mozhi
1998: Anuragakottaram, Kallu Kondoru Pennu, Manjeeradhwani          
2000: Kochu Kochu Santhoshangal
2002: Nizhalkkuthu  
2003: Manassinakkare
2005: Achuvinte Amma, Ponmudipuzhayorathu
2006: Pachakuthira, Rasathanthram
2007: Vinodayathra
2008: Innathe Chinthavishayam
Telugu
1978: Vayasu Pilichindi
1979: Ammaa Evarigaina Amma, Pancha Bhoothalu, Urvasi Niney Naa
Priyasi, Yerra Gulabi
1980: Kotha Jeevithalu, Maayadhaari Krishnudu
1981: Amaavaasya Chandhrudu, Nee Nanna Gellare, Prema Pichchi, Seethakoka Chilaka
1982: Angadhudu, Nireekshana
1983: Abhilasha, Sagara Sangamam
1984: Jalsarayudu, Nuvva Nena, Takkaridonga, Veerabhadhrudu
1985: Oka Radha Iddaru Krishnulu, Anveshana, Darja Donga , Jalsa Bullodu, Monagadu Mosagadu, Preminchu Pelladu, Rahasya Hanthakudu,
Swathi Muthyam
1986: Raakshasudu, Kiraathakudu, Aalaapana, Manchi Manasulu, Sri
Shirdi Saibaba Mahathyam
1987: Sankeerthana, Sri Kanaka Mahalakshmi Recording Dance Troupe  
1988: Aasthulu Anthasthulu, Abhinandana, Varasudochhadu            
1989: Indrudu Chandrudu, Swathi Chinukulu                          
1990: Jagadeka Veerudu Attilokasundari, Kondaveeti Donga, Guru
Shishyulu
1991: Keechu Raallu, Sri Edukondala Swaami
1992: Ashwamedham, Chinna Rayudu, Marutode Naa Mogudu              
1993: Amma Koduku
2007: Anumanaspadam
Kannada
1978: Maathu Thappadha Maga
1980: Janma Janmada Anubandha, Pasidi Moggalu
1981: Bhari Bharjari Bete, Garjanai
1983: Niyaaya Geththidhu
Hindi
1981: Do Dil Diwane
1983: Sadma
1985: Khooni, Mera Inteqam
1986: Jadu Nagari
1991: Coolie No. 1, Aadmi Aur Apsara
1996: Aur Ek Prem Kahani, Chhaila, Gulaabi, Saza-E-Kala Pani, Sabse Bada Mawali    
2001: Lajja (Background Music)
2005: Divorce: Not Between Husband and Wife
2007: Cheeni Kum
2008: Mukhbiir

LAUREL - HARDY

Having been besieged with inquiries, e-mails, and phone calls yesterday and today, there is only time for a fast summary response in hopes of clarifying some few details beyond what was conveyed in the much more official Vivendi press release.

First, no colorization. Second, no silents. Third, we do have all the sound shorts and features still part of the HRS library, including all extant foreign versions, except for the Spanish PARDON US, the French BLOTTO, and the German LAUREL-HARDY MURDER CASE.

Fourth, or number four, or quatro, as the case may be, if you are serious about understanding what’s happening, please read the four part essay on film preservation here at www.laurel-and-hardy.com.

                         
Once you comprehend everything there, I can add (or repeat) that we spent millions of dollars (bought with Euros) painstakingly restoring and preserving the Hal Roach library between 1985 and 2002. The work was done for the copyright proprietor in the Eastern Hemisphere, CCA, which licensed the Universal boxed set in England. We did this work in Los Angeles at Film Tech, relying primarily on the nitrate that came out of the HRS Culver City vaults and its labs and its storage depots on the East Coast in the 1960s that were subsequently housed for years at the LOC before we pulled everything out of there and brought it all back to Los Angeles to do this project, before I finally steered these same elements to UCLA where they reside today. And as Hal Roach would ask if he were explaining this, “Is that clear?”

As we labored long at Film Tech, we sent both a 35mm fine grain and 35mm dupe neg overseas to Munich, and offered a twin of the fine grain to RHI in Los Angeles, at cost. They elected to take fine grains on all the sound Our Gangs and Laurel & Hardys, which were supposed to last from here to eternity (1953). Almost immediately, however, RHI (including when it was controlled by Hallmark, now happily out of the picture) proceeded to misplace or lose a bunch of them. Hence the several unpleasant circumstances surrounding the Our Gang DVD release by the ironically named Genius Products, LLC. Leonard Maltin and I tried to tell them…they wouldn’t listen. So now they’re out of business.

RHI’s new licensee, however, is Vivendi. We made sure that this time RHI physically turned over to Vivendi’s standards conversion house the 35mm fine grains I gave them originally, and for the ones they lost or misplaced we got access to the corresponding duplicate 35mm film elements in Munich.

That leads to the answer many want to get at: yes, these are newly performed conversions of 35mm fine grains. We did not rework old tape masters. We went back to Kodak Fine Grain Film. F-I-L-M. So we did not start with video; we started with film, the kind with sprockets. Plus, the new masters derived therefrom have indeed been digitally enhanced, so that these subjects can be presented in superb Hi-Def for the first time anywhere by anyone.

Are they perfect? No. Are you perfect? Probably not. Joe E. Brown said it for everyone in SOME LIKE IT HOT, “Nobody’s perfect.” Is any little frame missing? Is anything missing? What are you missing? Do you look as good as you did 80 years ago? Do you notice any new lines and abrasions? Are you as sharp as you were 40 years ago? How about 10 years ago? How much is a digital enhancement going to improve any of us?

So, again, brand new film transfers in High Definition using the same 35mm fine grains we created between 1985 and 2002 from the best surviving nitrate preprint material we could locate anywhere in the world. Plus digital cleanup, digitally enhanced. In addition, we have also just restored – again, for the first time ever, anywhere – all of the original, authentic distributor opening title card sequences with their unique and imaginative design, so coveted by fans for so long. Including by me, as my old boss Kent D. Eastin of Blackhawk Films could testify if he were still here.



The Vivendi DVDs are not connected to the new, long term project now just beginning at UCLA, which will first have to raise the money for this task, then do the work. WAY OUT WEST and HELPMATES were done within the last few years, and I believe SCRAM! is next in line. So the worthwhile but lengthy and arduous UCLA effort is only beginning. In any case, remember the copyright rests with CCA and RHI in their respective halves of the world, not with UCLA.

I hope all that will answer some of the key concerns. If not, let us hear from you and we will field the best questions.

Finally, some comments on UCLA’s project, and the essay they asked me to write, the full version of which, as mentioned, appears on our website.

All of us want to believe we are doing something useful with our lives, something that matters, something that leaves lasting marks. Something that speaks to future generations, to show we were here, and made a difference. Time travel is an important component of my attraction to classic films. Did all that talent in these great Hal Roach comedies realize they were communicating with millions of people not yet born at that time? Those of us who receive that communication today and in the future...how can we respond? What should we do?

We want to let these artists and technicians know they didn't do all that work for nothing. That we enjoy and honor the entertainment value offered, and that we treasure the living history they have unwittingly given us. And one meaningful thing we can do and one way we can respond is to support film preservation efforts. It is important to do so. Yes my essay will make some fans cringe.
 The story is painful; in fact it is worse than you know. I softened and concealed some of the worst incidents. And yes it is easy for us to look back and criticize the careless custodians of these treasures. The studios, the distributors, the exhibitors, and all those people weren’t perfect. We are not perfect, either. In fact we have some responsibility here too, because we have an opportunity now to be part of the film preservation effort at UCLA.
To make another run at saving these films, from a different point of view. The more preservation the better. Corporate preservation in Munich. Institutional preservation in Los Angeles. This second opportunity is something all of us can get involved in, at any level of participation.

If these films mean something to you, please do get involved. Or, as recruiting Sergeant Tom Kennedy said so eloquently in PACK UP YOUR TROUBLES, “How about it?”

Meanwhile, if laughter is what you are after, sit back; relax in depth, anticipating that very soon you will be able to enjoy the best of all shows – the immortal Hal Roach comedies of Laurel & Hardy. This cherished collection brings them all back, into exceedingly sharp focus. They look better than ever.

     

                         

The main raw materials used in the cement manufacturing process are limestone, sand, shale, clay, and iron ore. The main material, limestone, is usually mined on site while the other minor materials may be mined either on site or in nearby quarries. Another source of raw materials is industrial by-products. The use of by-product materials to replace natural raw materials is a key element in achieving sustainable development.

Raw Material Preparation

Mining of limestone requires the use of drilling and blasting techniques. The blasting techniques use the latest technology to insure vibration, dust, and noise emissions are kept at a minimum. Blasting produces materials in a wide range of sizes from approximately 1.5 meters in diameter to small particles less than a few millimeters in diameter.

Material is loaded at the blasting face into trucks for transportation to the crushing plant. Through a series of crushers and screens, the limestone is reduced to a size less than 100 mm and stored until required.

Depending on size, the minor materials (sand, shale, clay, and iron ore) may or may not be crushed before being stored in separate areas until required.

Raw Grinding

In the wet process, each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired chemical composition and fed to a rotating ball mill with water. The raw materials are ground to a size where the majority of the materials are less than 75 microns. Materials exiting the mill are called "slurry" and have flowability characteristics. This slurry is pumped to blending tanks and homogenized to insure the chemical composition of the slurry is correct. Following the homogenization process, the slurry is stored in tanks until required.

In the dry process, each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired chemical composition and fed to either a rotating ball mill or vertical roller mill. The raw materials are dried with waste process gases and ground to a size where the majority of the materials are less than 75 microns. The dry materials exiting either type of mill are called "kiln feed". The kiln feed is pneumatically blended to insure the chemical composition of the kiln feed is well homogenized and then stored in silos until required.

Pyroprocessing

Whether the process is wet or dry, the same chemical reactions take place. Basic chemical reactions are: evaporating all moisture, calcining the limestone to produce free calcium oxide, and reacting the calcium oxide with the minor materials (sand, shale, clay, and iron). This results in a final black, nodular product known as "clinker" which has the desired hydraulic properties.

In the wet process, the slurry is fed to a rotary kiln, which can be from 3.0 m to 5.0 m in diameter and from 120.0 m to 165.0 m in length. The rotary kiln is made of steel and lined with special refractory materials to protect it from the high process temperatures. Process temperatures can reach as high as 1450oC during the clinker making process.

In the dry process, kiln feed is fed to a preheater tower, which can be as high as 150.0 meters. Material from the preheater tower is discharged to a rotary kiln with can have the same diameter as a wet process kiln but the length is much shorter at approximately 45.0 m. The preheater tower and rotary kiln are made of steel and lined with special refractory materials to protect it from the high process temperatures.

Regardless of the process, the rotary kiln is fired with an intense flame, produced by burning coal, coke, oil, gas or waste fuels. Preheater towers can be equipped with firing as well.

The rotary kiln discharges the red-hot clinker under the intense flame into a clinker cooler. The clinker cooler recovers heat from the clinker and returns the heat to the pyroprocessing system thus reducing fuel consumption and improving energy efficiency. Clinker leaving the clinker cooler is at a temperature conducive to being handled on standard conveying equipment.

Finish Grinding and Distribution

The black, nodular clinker is stored on site in silos or clinker domes until needed for cement production. Clinker, gypsum, and other process additions are ground together in ball mills to form the final cement products. Fineness of the final products, amount of gypsum added, and the amount of process additions added are all varied to develop a desired performance in each of the final cement products.

Each cement product is stored in an individual bulk silo until needed by the customer. Bulk cement can be distributed in bulk by truck, rail, or water depending on the customer's needs. Cement can also be packaged with or without color addition and distributed by truck or rail.
              

                           

      Nearly extinct after WWII, the American Bulldog was saved by the efforts of one man named John D. Johnson. Originally used for the blood sport of bull baiting, this breed became prized by farmers for their intelligence, working abilities, stamina, and protective nature. American Bulldogs were also used to hunt wild boar, bear, raccoon, and squirrel. Considered to be a rare breed, the American Bulldog is ranked number one for their versatile capabilities.
Character

The American Bulldog is extremely athletic, powerful, and muscular. Strong and agile, this breed is very swift and is capable of leaping heights of six feet or more. They are brave, alert, courageous, and fearlessly determined.
Temperament

American Bulldogs are typically friendly, happy, and devoted. They get along very well with children but due to their size are best suited for homes with older considerate children. They will generally do well with other dogs they have been raised with but do not do well with other small household pets or cats. The American Bulldog is a faithful and loyal companion that has strong guarding instincts. They are reserved and wary of strangers and aggressive toward dogs they do not know. This breed is not recommended for the novice dog owner.
Care

The short coat is easy to groom. Regular brushing with a firm bristle brush will help minimize loose hair. Bathing should only be done when necessary using a mild shampoo. A relatively healthy breed, the American Bulldog may be prone to hip dysplasia.
Coat

The American Bulldog has a close fitting coat that is short and harsh. The coat color comes in solid white, with various combinations and patterns of brown, tan, red, and brindle. This breed is an average shedder.
Training

Early intense socialization and obedience training are an absolute must for this breed. They will not respond to harsh or heavy-handed methods. Training must be done with firmness, fairness, patience, and consistency. The American Bulldogs talents include tracking, hunting, schutzhund, weight pulling, and guarding.
Activity

The American Bulldog does best when they are given a job to do. They enjoy frequent securely leashed walks, family play sessions, and romping in the yard. This breed does best on a farm with room to roam or in a home with a large fenced yard. They will do okay in an apartment dwelling provided they are given sufficient exercise, attention, and stimulation.

                                        

Australian Shepherd Breed 

 

The exact origin of the Australian Shepherd is not known. The breed that is cherished and loved today was developed exclusively in the United States. The Australian Shepherd has an innate versatility that makes them useful on ranches and farms as a herding dog, retriever, and watchdog. They are typically referred to as "The Aussie".

Character

The Australian Shepherds most identifiable characteristic is the natural or docked bobtail. Their eyes are one of this breeds most commented on feature. Their eyes come in a variety of colors or color combinations and include blue, amber, hazel, and all shades of brown. The Aussie is a vigorous and athletic breed.

Temperament

Australian Shepherds are intelligent, delightful, and loyal. They are highly energetic and thrive on being given something to do. The Aussie has a high degree of intensity and a "no-quit" attitude. Their herding instinct may be problematic or annoying to their family, as this breed will often attempt to perform this task on everyone or anything that moves. They are reserved and cautious with strangers until the Aussie decides about them. They are confident and protective. Human companionship is crucial to this breed. They get along well with active, considerate older children. The Aussie is not typically aggressive to other dogs.

Care

The Australian Shepherd requires minimal grooming. An occasional brushing with a firm bristle brush will suffice. It is important to do more in depth grooming when they are going through their seasonal shedding. Bathing should only be done when absolutely necessary. The Aussie is susceptible to a myriad of health issues and concerns. Their merle coloration carries a blind/deaf factor. Natural bobtails may have serious spinal defects. They are also prone to epilepsy, hip dysplasia, and cataracts.

Coat

The Australian Shepherd has a striking and varied coat. It is of moderate length, straight to wavy, and weather resistant. The under coat is shed twice a year; with moderate shedding between these periods. The coat comes in four accepted colors: black, blue merle, red, and red merle. A variety of white and tan markings may appear on the face, chest, front, and rear legs.

Training

 

Australian Shepherds are easy to train. They benefit from early socialization and very basic obedience. It is important that they know who the master is or they will attempt to take control. The Australian Shepherd requires firm, fair, consistent, and effective direction. Their high intelligence and keen learning ability make repetitive training boring.

Activity

The Australian Shepherd requires an inordinate amount of exercise. A mere walk is not sufficient. They thrive on running, herding, playing, and all family activities. They are at their best when they are given a great deal of social interaction and a task to do. Australian Shepherds are not recommended for apartment dwelling. They are moderately active indoors and require a non-sedentary owner and a large securely fenced yard or safe open area.

 
              The Aurora Machine and Tool Company started as a machine shop in 1886. It provided forging and machine parts for the then burgeoning bicycle industry. This was a time when many fortunes were to be made in the bicycle industry. Many bike manufacturers set up shop. They bought their castings, forgings and parts like hubs and coaster brakes from Aurora. They would then braze together, assemble, paint, and market their product. I have yet to see a pre-motorcycle parts catalogue - however by 1903 (the year of my earliest literature) they had a large line of parts including 10 different rear hubs, 5 different front hubs, racing hubs, spokes, nipples, handlebars, special spoke washers to be used with wooden rims and a large number of patents were listed.

Enter Indian-

Some time about 1899 Oscar Hedstrom built his first motorcycle. It was a tandem motorcycle used to pace bicycle races. The front person steered; the back person ran the motor and made all necessary adjustments to keep it running (hopefully at the right speed!). No one is sure where that first motor came from. Many have said it was very similar to the French made De Dion motor. Hedstrom had no foundry to work from so it is probable that the castings were provided by some unknown machine shop making their own version of a De Dion or another possibility was that Hedstrom made the pattern himself and used the foundry at Warwick Motorcycle in Connecticut. Presumably Hedstrom refined the design over the original De Dion motor because his machine was notably superior to anything else available. In 1901 he joined forces with George Hendee and formed the Indian Moto Cycle Company. During that year three prototype machines were built. We know from good documentation that in the fall of 1901 one of these prototype Indians was shipped to the Aurora factory be studied by them. Oscar Hedstrom went along to render technical assistance. Why Aurora? Apparently they had been providing Hendee with castings for his Silver King and Silver Queen bicycles.

After several months' work, the Aurora Company produced a new motor of Hendee's design. These motors differed from the prototype most notably in the use of three cylinder studs instead of the four (ala De Dion). Also some ribs were added to strengthen the engine case. Aurora struck a bargain with the fledgling Indian Company. Aurora would build these engines for Indian but would be free to sell additional motors to other companies providing that a royalty was paid. Also it was stipulated that Aurora would not build motorcycles and compete with Indian. I have yet to see the original contract so the exact wording of the agreement is still unknown to me.

There were 137 Indians produced in 1902. All of the motors were built by Aurora, and as Indian had no foundry and limited production capabilities probably most of the forgings, castings and machined parts. George Hendee was previously in the bicycle manufacturing business and so it is assumed that Indian brazed together their own frames, manufactured their own fenders and tanks did their own painting and assembly. It is known that Indian had patents for the Chain Adjuster, "Muffler For Internal Combustion Engines", "Valve For Internal Combustion Engines", Controlling Mechanism For Internal Combustion Engines", Carburetor, and "Fuel or other reservoir (?)". So presumably Indian used their own rear hubs, not Aurora's hubs. However, early Indian literature says they used a New Departure hub. It is unknown if Aurora made or sold any motors in 1902 other than the 137 to Indian. It is possible that that was all they could produce, as a reference found in the Indian archives mentions how shipments were often unreliable and sporadic.

In 1903 Aurora founded the Thor Moto Cycle and Bicycle Company. Or at least they produced a catalogue showing Thor Moto Cycle parts and components. In their catalogue every part needed to produce a motorcycle was listed for sale. A picture carefully worded as a "motorcycle assembled from Thor components" was shown. Interesting that they might have their own tank decal if they were only selling components for other companies! No frame was offered for sale but all of the forgings could be purchased to assemble your own. In 1903 trade magazine ads were seen of companies that would sell you Thor motorcycles built from components. It is here that we mark the beginning of the Thor Motorcycle Company. At about this time at least half a dozen other companies sprang up all producing similar machines built from similar components all looking near identical to the 1902 Indian and 1903 Thor.

What was the difference between a Thor, a Thor clone and an Indian? Well, all the forgings may have been the same however the frames were all built using different jigs and possibly different dimensions. It is near impossible for us to sort this out now because some of the dozen or so 1902 Indians that we know about have some wrong components. The surviving 1903-05 Thors are even more dubious. Some clones have been restored to be Thors. Some Thors have Indian component on them. One "early Thor" uses a skip tooth roller chain (versus Indian block chain) has a heavier gauge frame tube, uses a Thor rear hub and both the carb and motor say Thor instead of Indian. Indian would often brag that they did something secret to their motors that made them superior to Thors but most experts doubt this. Another difference between the two machines can be found in the right-sided spark advance. The Indian had a link arrangement coming out of the handlebar, the Thor had a sort of rack and gear arrangement at the headstock. Thor also had a kill switch on the engine case that triggered when the spark was completely retarded - Indian motors did not. It is said that in 1905 half the motorcycles seen at a trade show were Thor clones. Included in the list are Thor-bred, Reading Standard, Merkle, Apache, Raycycle, Manson and in years later Sears and Torpedo.

From what we can see Thor did not change their design from 1903-1905. In a 1908 parts book they show a picture of the original 1903 design and call it a 1903-05. They also show a different Model for 1906-07, which uses the same design with numerous changes. The same model was updated in 1908 and sold as a model "7". This same design was until early 1909.

Indian literature states that they had their own in house foundry in 1906. In 1908 Thor opened there own dealerships advertised completed machines and produced their first real sales literature. Thus officially ending any ties. In addition to the previous model 7 an entire line of new machines with choice of either battery or magneto ignition were now available. Thor offered chain drive or belt drive. One new design was a unique appearing twin with automatic intake valves. The twin had the rear cylinder straight up and the front cylinder angled forward (as Ducatis were later famous for). By all accounts it ran rather well which is interesting in the light that both Indian and Harley had difficulties with automatic intake twins.

Thors changed with the times. In 1911 they offered a free engine clutch for the first time. They continued belt drive for the last year but only on their single cylinder models. Apparently the factory felt that the additional horsepower of the twin produced an unacceptable amount of slippage. Rather than use a more conventional belt-tensioning device, these belt drive Thors used a complex device which instead altered the geometry of the frame to tension the belt. Another addition for 1911 was a change in the intake valve of the twins. A rather unique pull rod was used to pull the intake valve open. One other unique design feature was found in 1911 and that was in the magneto timing. Rather than advance and retard the timing plate on the magneto the ignition timing was changed by moving the magneto idler gear (a feature that thankfully did not survive into 1912).

In 1912 an entirely new single and twin were offered both with rocker arms. The twin was now a more conventional V but unlike Indian's 42 degrees and Harley's 45 degrees Thor chose a 50-degree angle. Also offered was an optional two-speed transmission. This transmission was aluminum and it mounted to the side of the rear hub. Apparently of good design the aluminum Thor transmission was sold until 1914 and was even offered as an option on other motorcycle most notably the Henderson four. Perhaps the most exciting change for 1912 was that for the first time Thor was available in White as well as Blue. Apparently Bill Ottaway had used white as the color for all Thor's racing team. They were very successful so the factory felt that the public would be interested in buying a White Thor. I don't know how they figured owners would keep them clean looking (the owners manual suggests Ivory soap!).

Not much changed in 1913 however in 1914 the twin was offered as a 1000cc and now a 1,200cc machine. The new bigger twin could also be bought with a Schebler carb if desired. Up until this point all Thors used their own Thor updraft carburetor. Like most other manufacturer Thor added footboard in 1914. Thor still continued its pedal crank rear brake however a pedal and ratcheting device was added that gave a little additional leverage to a marginal braking system.

In 1915 the white color scheme was gone. Everyone else was offering electric lights as an option so Thor mounted an electric headlight and a Splitdorf mag dyno and they had an electric model too. 1915 was a banner year for Indian, Harley, and Excelsior. They each offered a three-speed transmission of conventional design. The best Thor could do was a new designed cast iron two speed that mounted aside the rear hub. While maybe this unit was rugged in design its huge size and weight left much to be desired.

Having carried one from one end of a swap meet field to the other I can attest that it was just too heavy.

Along with the usual singles and twins offered in 1915 was a Short Coupled racer. It was actually a short-coupled version of a 1914 street bike. Given the tremendous competition on the board tracks in 1915 it is doubtful that anyone could have thought this bike to be competitive. More likely a marketing decision on a way to sell some of last years left over inventory.

1916 was for all intents and purposes the last real design change. Thor offered a three-speed transmission and clutch of conventional design. After 1916 there were no changes made to the motor design. Actually some evidence suggests that all motors sold after 1916 were built in 1916. In 1917 a front stand was offered. In 1918 the fender valence was changed, as was the luggage rack. A lug was added to the front down tube of the frame to mount a sidecar. Conjecture is that this was done to appeal to the military market. I have seen no documentation of any number of Thors sold to the US military. However given the number of olive drab parts turn up as well as the proportion of 1918 and later machines that exist in Europe it is probable that some country must have bought purchased a large number of machines.

Thor continued on to produce a line of motorcycle under the parent company of Aurora Independent Machine and Tool. At the same time Aurora continued to market forgings to other companies and to sell Pneumatic and power tools under a different division. There is scarcely a brand of american motorcycle that wasn't in some way "touched" by Aurora. Reading Standard, Flying Merkle, Raycyle, Indian, Sears have all been mentioned. Cyclone (? - well the fork and frame forgings at least were), Henderson (? - well the 1913-14 models sold a Thor two speed hub as an option), Harley (? - the 1911-14 single speed hubs were of Thor design and manufacture). Another tie in to Harley was in the arena of racing. Thor had a racing division from about 1908 to 1912 and they had a fair amount of success. It was run by William Ottaway. Bill left in 1912 and formed the incredibly successful Harley Davidson racing team, which bought Harley from relative obscurity in 1911 to arguably the American champions in 1916.

By 1918 the Thor Motorcycle Company was fading into obscurity. We know they brought a new model single out in 1918 mostly from left over parts. Enough changes were made that we know that the company was still producing bikes.

In 1919 Thor brought out a new sales catalogue however except for the cover and a change in name the motorcycle was identical. The parent company transferred motorcycle production to the Aurora Pneumatic Tool Company of Chicago Illinois. Which was simply just a different division of the same company. In 1920 the board of directors announced a halt to motorcycle production.

In 1965 an employee of Thor who was a semi-retired janitor sent a letter to the AMCA stating that he hard worked for Thor until 1916 when they stopped motorcycle production and sold everything to a salvage company. Based on this account many books erroneously state that Thor ended production in 1916. Well it is easy to prove that production continued until 1918 because of the changes advertised in their sales brochure. Many of those parts exist today as proof. I don't know of a complete machine that claims to be later than 1917 and even that one has the wrong motor. I have seen three motors in 1918-20 frames with serial numbers inside the case showing they were built in 1916! Maybe the last motors were built in 1916 who can say? Maybe the last machines were assembled in 1918 and sales were such that they continued to have inventory until 1920? It is hard to know. Thor did continue to produce power tools under the name Thor well into the 50s. A separate division of the Aurora Company known as Hubley Manufacturing produced a line of home appliances such as clothes washers, irons and dishwashers using the Thor brand name. At one time they produced a combination clothes washer - dishwasher which may help explain why they are no longer in business!

he Academy Awards®, affectionately known as the Oscars®, are the oldest, best known, most influential, most prestigious, and famous of film awards. The awards (and gold-plated statuettes) have been presented annually (the first awards ceremony was held in May of 1929) by a non-profit professional organization - the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), based in Beverly Hills, California, and founded in 1927. Pricewaterhouse (now PricewaterhouseCoopers) has managed the Academy Awards balloting process since 1935 - all but the first six years of the Oscars. Ever since 1941, when their now-famous confidential envelope system was introduced, marking the first year of complete secrecy, "the Envelope Please" has become a familiar phrase that evokes the thought of the Academy Awards® ceremony.
Except for the early years of the institution, the awards honored films made during the previous 12-month calendar year. [At first, to be eligible for an award, a film had to open in Los Angeles during the twelve months ending on July 31 of the preceding year. To allow each ceremony to cover films for a single calendar year - matching the eligibility period, the 1932/33 awards were based on a 17-month qualifying period. Ever since then, beginning with the 1934 awards ceremony, all awards have been based on openings in the previous calendar year. Films also had to be over 40 minutes long to qualify as feature-length.] Until 1954, the Oscars were presented mostly on a Thursday evening. From 1955 to 1958, they were presented on a Wednesday. From 1959 until 1998 the Oscars were, with a few exceptions, presented on a Monday night. Only since 1999 has the Awards ceremony taken place on a Sunday (traditionally in March). In 2004, the ceremony was moved even earlier to improve ratings and to be more relevant to the awards 'season'.

Comments About the Awards Themselves:

The establishment of the Academy (and its awards system) has had a major effect and influence upon the film industry, due to the enormous boost a nomination or award (for a film or actor) creates, by giving prestige and bottom-line profits to a studio or performer. Studios have often engaged in expensive marketing and advertising campaigns to sway votes, and to encourage contractual loyalty during voting. The Academy has, with limited success, tried to limit the influences of pressure groups and promotion, box office gross receipts, and studio public relations and marketing on voting results. It has also attempted to limit votes for melodramatic sentimentality, atonement for past mistakes, personal popularity, and "prestige" or epic scale, but those influences have often had a decided effect upon the outcome of some of the poll results.
Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence, and innovative qualities of many films are not given the same voting weight. Especially since the 80s, moneymaking 'formula-made' blockbusters with glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but they haven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure. See The Worst Academy Awards Oscars for more.
Like any other awards, recognitions, or "best" lists, the top nominees and winners do not necessarily reflect or objectively measure the greatest that cinematic history has to offer. Many of the most Deserving Films of All Time (see Films Without Awards) did not win Academy Awards® (and in some cases were not even included in the nominees). In addition, Top Box-Office Films aren't always guaranteed awards success either.
And certain Film Genres (notably westerns, science fiction, and comedy) as well as independent films are not represented in balanced numbers throughout Oscar history - see extensive analysis of Best Picture Genre Biases.

February 30 was a real date at one point in time in Sweden and the Soviet Union. However, the introduction of this date was temporary. In Sweden, February 30 resulted from an error with calendar conversion in the 18th century. About two centuries later, the Soviet revolutionary calendar featured February 30 as a result of an attempt to cut seven-day weeks into five-day weeks and to introduce 30-day months for every working month.

Sweden’s 30 days of February

In 1700 Sweden, which included Finland at the time, planned to convert from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore 1700, which should have been a leap year in the Julian calendar, was not a leap year in Sweden. However, 1704 and 1708 became leap years by error. This left Sweden out of synchronization with both the Julian and the Gregorian calendars, so the country reverted back to the Julian calendar.
February 30, 1712, came into existence in Sweden when the Julian calendar was restored and 2 leap days were added that year. Sweden’s final conversion to the Gregorian calendar occurred in 1753, when a 10-day correction was applied so that February 17 became March 1 that year. Not everyone was pleased with the calendar reform. They believed it stole 11 days of their lives.

The Soviet revolutionary calendar

 

February 30 existed from 1930-1931 after the Soviet Union introduced a revolutionary calendar in 1929. This calendar featured five-day weeks, 30-day months for every working month, and the remaining five or six days were “monthless” holidays. The abolition of the seven-day week in favor of a five-day week was intended to improve industrial efficiency by avoiding the regular interruption of a non-working day.
However, the Gregorian calendar continued to be used in the Soviet Union during this period. This is confirmed by successive dates found in daily issues of Pravda, the official newspaper of the Communist Party, in which February had 28 days in 1930 and 1931, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The Soviet revolutionary calendar was discarded as it was difficult to eliminate the Sunday rest tradition. The original seven-day week was restored in 1940.

Fact or fiction: the Julian calendar

 

 

The 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco claimed that February had 30 days in leap years between 45 BCE and 8 BCE in the Julian calendar, when February was shortened to give the month of August the same length as the month of July. However, historical evidence relating to the Julian calendar refutes Sacrobosco, who was critical of that particular calendar.

January 1

2012
Queen Elizabeth II appoints John Howard, Prime Minister of Australia, and artist David Hockney, to the Order of Merit
2012
NASA's second Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory spacecraft is in orbit around the moon
2011
Brazil swears in Dilma Rousseff, its first female president
2011
Hungary takes over the position of the presidency of the European Union
2010
A suicide bomber kills 95 people, injures over 100, and destroys 20 houses at a volleyball game in Lakki Marwat, Pakistan
2009
Czech Republic assumes EU presidency
2009
Slovakia replaces its national currency, the Slovak koruna, with the Euro
2008
Cyprus replaces it's currency with the Euro
2008
Malta replaces it's currency with the Euro
2007
Bulgaria joins the European Union
2007
Romania joins the European Union
2007
Slovenia begins using the Euro as it's currency
2004
Rose Bowl, USC Trojans beat Michigan Wolverines 28 - 14
2003
Rose Bowl, Oklahoma Sooners beat Washington State Cougars 34 - 14
2002
Rose Bowl, Miami Hurricanes beat Nebraska Cornhuskers 37 - 14
2002
The Euro becomes the official currency for most of Europe
2001
Rose Bowl, Washington Huskies beat Purdue Boilermakers 34 - 24
2000
Rose Bowl, Wisconsin Badgers beat Stanford Cardinals 17 - 9
2000
After years of preparation for Y2K, only minor computer-related problems were reported (a problem with Hotmail, with a nuclear power plant in Japan and with apartment heating in Korea)
2000
Millennial celebrations occurred worldwide without terrorist incidents
1999
International Year of Elderly
1999
Rose Bowl, Wisconsin Badgers beat UCLA Bruins 38 - 31
1998
All California bars, clubs and card rooms must be smoke-free
1998
Mongolia switches from a 46 hour to 40 hour work week
1998
U.S. Census Bureau estimates population at 268,921,733
1998
Rose Bowl, Michigan Wolverines beat Washington State Cougars 21 - 16
1997
Rose Bowl, Ohio State Buckeyes beat Arizona State Sun Devils 20 - 17
1996
After 27 years, Betty Rubble debuts as a Flintstone vitamin
1996
Curaeao gains limited form of self rule (Status Aparte)
1995
"Glass Menagerie" closes at Criterion Theater New York City after 57 performances
1995
"Shadow Box" closes at Circle in Square Theater New York City after 49 performances
1995
Austria, Finland and Sweden act to join European Union
1995
Centennial of Canadian Mounties presence in Canada's Yukon Territory
1995
Fernando Henrique Cardoso installed as president of Brazil
1995
International Year of Tolerance
1995
Last "Far Side" by cartoonist Gary Larson started in 1980
1995
Raman Lamba and Ravi Sehgal score 464 for 1st wicket for Delhi
1995
"Tuna Christmas" closes at Booth Theater New York City 20 performances
1994
"Flying Karamzov Brothers" closes at Helen Hayes New York City after 50 performances
1994
"Grand Night after Singing" closes at Criterion New York City after 52 performances
1994
Aleksandr Popov swims world record 100m free style (47.83)
1994
Carquest Bowl 4: Boston College beats Virginia, 32-13
1994
Howard Stern's New Year's Eve Beauty Pageant
1994
International Year of Family
1994
Jacobs Field opens with "Gateway's New Year's Eve Countdown to '94"
1994
Microsoft CEO Bill Gates (38) marries Melinda French (29)
1994
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect
1993
12 member European Economic Community sets up vast free trade zone
1993
Blockbuster Bowl 3: Stanford beats Penn State, 24-3
1993
Cigarette advertisements are banned in New York City's Metropolitan Transportation Authority
1993
Czechoslovakia separates into Czech Republic (Bohemia) and Slovakia
1993
Harry Connick, Jr. arrested at a New York airport for gun possession
1992
Bush is 1st U.S. President to address Australian Parliament
1992
Curaeao becomes 1st in Dutch Antilles to have compulsory education
1992
Europe breaks down trade barriers
1992
International Space Year begins
1992
New York City transit fare increases from $1.15 to $1.25
1991
5% sales tax on consumer goods and services goes into effect in U.S.S.R.
1991
Iraq rejects peace proposal from Egyptian President Hosi Mubarak
1991
Les Miserables opens at Festival Theatre, Adelaide
1990
David Dinkins sworn in as 1st black mayor of New York City
1990
Mitsuko Nishiwaki beats Nakano to become Japan Women wrestling champ
1990
New York City Metropolitan Transportation Authority stops token redemption at subway stations
1990
Sports News Network begins operation on cable TV
1990
FCC implements "SYNDEX" giving independent stations more rights over cable TV outlets for exclusive syndicated programs
1989
Actress Kelly McGillis gets married
1989
New York City transit fare rises from $1.00 to $1.15
1989
Year of the Young Reader begins
1988
Czechoslovakian born tennis star Hana Mandikova becomes an Australian Citizen
1988
Miami beats Oklahoma for college football championship
1988
Year of the Reader begins
1987
60 bodies recovered in Dupont Plaza Hotel fire in Puerto Rico
1987
China's rudimentary civil code in effect
1987
International Year of Shelter for Homeless begins
1986
Aruba becomes independent from neighbor island Curaeao
1986
Barbra Striesand and Jon Peters relationship breaks up
1986
International Peace Year begins
1986
New York City transit fare rises from 90 cents to $1.00
1986
Oklahoma wins Orange Bowl for college football championship
1986
Spain and Portugal are 11th and 12th to join European Economic Community
1986
Iowa's All-American running back, Ronnie Harmon, fumbles the ball 4 times in his last game at the Rose Bowl
1985
Actress Judith Licht (Who's the Boss) marries Robert Desiderio (One Life to Live)
1985
International Youth Year begins
1985
U.S.'s 1st manadatory seat belt law goes into effect in New York
1985
VH-1 made its broadcasting debut
1984
AT&T's 22 owned Bell system companies divests into 8 companies
1984
Brunei becomes independent of U.K.
1984
New York City transit fare rises from 75 cents to 90 cents
1983
PGA inaugurates all-exempt tour
1983
Penn State beats Georgia in Sugar Bowl for college football title
1983
World Communications Year begins
1982
30 Something stars Ken Olin and Patricia Wettig meet, later they marry
1982
Clemson wins the Orange Bowl for college football championship
1982
Javier Perez de Cuellar becomes Secretary-General of UN
1982
Metropolitan Transportation Authority launches a 5 year plan to upgrade the New York City subway system
1982
Pope John Paul II prays for an end to martial law in Poland
1982
TA launches 5 year capital program to overhaul New York City subway system
1981
Georgia beats Notre Dame in Sugar Bowl for college football title
1981
Greece is 10th country to join European Economic Community
1981
International Year for the Disabled begins
1981
Palau, Trust Territory of Pacific Islands, becomes self-governing
1981
Roger Smith becomes CEO of General Motors
1980
54th Australian Womens Tennis: Barbara Jordan beats S Walsh (63 63)
1980
Alabama beats Arkansas in Sugar Bowl for college football championship
1980
Chrysler U.K. renamed Talbot
1980
International Decade of Water and Sanitation begins
1980
Mob storms Russian embassy in Teheran
1980
Premier Adbou Diouf becomes president of Senegal
1980
Sweden changes order of succession to throne
1979
International Year of the Child begins
1979
Jura, 26th canton of Switzerland, established
1979
U.S. and China (Peoples Republic) begin diplomatic relations
1978
"Your Arm's Too Short..." closes at Lyceum New York City after 429 performances
1978
Air India B747 explodes near Bombay killing 213
1978
President Ford signs 1st major revision of copyright law since 1909
1977
1st woman formally ordained an Episcopal priest (Jacqueline Means)
1977
Belgium reapportions 2,359 communities into 596
1977
Czechoslovakian intellects begin Human Rights Group Chapter 77
1977
Tony Dorsett runs for record 202 yards in the Sugar Bowl
1976
"Musical Jubilee" closes at St. James Theater New York City after 92 performances
1976
Liberty Bell moves to new home behind Independence Hall
1976
NBC replaces the peacock logo
1976
Venezuela nationalizes oil fields
1975
Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Mitchell and Mardian convicted of Watergate crime
1975
International Women's Year begins
1975
Sweden adopts constitution
1974
Lee MacPhail takes over as AL president, succeeding Joe Cronin
1974
NBC radio begins on the hour news 24 hours a day (following CBS lead)
1974
World Population Year begins
1973
47th Australian Women's Tennis: Margaret Court beats Goolagong (64 75)
1973
Britain, Ireland and Denmark become 7th - 9th members of Common Market
1973
West African Economic Community formed (Benin, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Upper Volta)
1972
"Company" closes at Alvin Theater New York City after 690 performances
1972
"On the Town" closes at Imperial Theater New York City after 65 performances
1972
"Promises Promises" closes at Shubert Theater New York City after 1281 performances
1972
China performs nuclear test at Lop Nor PRC
1972
International Book Year begins
1972
KDSD TV channel 16 in Aberdeen, SD (PBS) begins broadcasting
1971
Cigarette advertisements banned on television
1970
"The Epoch" (Time 0 for UNIX systems, Midnight GMT)
1970
Afro-American Historical Calendar Series Established
1970
Charles "Chub" Feeney becomes president of baseball's National League
1970
Netherlands Christian Workers Union (NCW) forms
1970
Revised calendar for Western (RC) Church goes into effect
1969
Jack Kent Cooke, owner of NHL's Los Angeles Kings, fines each player $100 for "NOT" arguing with the referee
1968
ABC radio splits into 4 networks (Info, Entertainment, Contemp and FM)
1968
Evel Knievel fails in his attempt to jump Caesar's Palace Fountain
1968
Netherlands gets color TV
1968
WDCO TV channel 15 in Cochran, Georgia (PBS) begins broadcasting
1967
CRU becomes the CAFA and turns over the Grey Cup trophy to the CFL
1967
Day's play in the Calcutta Test vs. West Indies cancelled by riots
1967
FCC requires AM-FM sister stations to be at least 50% different
1967
Green Bay Packers beat Dallas Cowboys 34-27 in NFL championship game
1967
Kansas City Chiefs beat Buffalo Bills 31-7 in AFL championship game
1967
St. Helena adopts constitution
1967
Tonga revises constitution
1967
WABW TV channel 14 in Pelham, Georgia (PBS) begins broadcasting
1966
12 day transit worker strike shuts down New York City subway
1966
Military coup by Col Jean-Bedel Bokassa in Central African Republic
1966
Simon and Garfunkel's "Sounds of Silence" reaches #1
1966
All U.S. cigarette packs have to carry "Caution Cigarette smoking may be hazardous to your health"
1965
International Cooperation Year begins
1965
Palestinian al-Fatah organization forms
1964
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland dissolved
1964
KNMT TV channel 12 in Walker, MN (CBS) begins broadcasting
1964
KTVS TV channel 3 in Sterling, CO (CBS) begins broadcasting
1963
G Woods succeeds Eugene Black as president of the World Bank
1963
WTEV (now WLNE) TV channel 6 in Providence RI begins broadcasting
1962
Beatles' Decca audition is unsuccessful
1962
Rwanda granted internal self-government by Belgium
1962
Western Samoa gains independence from New Zealand, Susuga Malietoa Tanumafili II becomes co-chief of Western Samoa
1961
Briggs Stadium is renamed Tigers Stadium
1961
Houston Oilers beat LA Chargers 24-16 in AFL championship game
1961
Largest check issued, National Bank of Chicago to Sears ($960.242 billion)
1961
Russia introduces a new ruble worth $1.11
1960
Bank of France issues new franc, worth 20 cents
1960
French Cameroon gains independence from France
1960
Johnny Cash plays 1st of many free concerts behind bars
1960
Montserrat adopts constitution
1960
U.S. census at 179,245,000
1959
Castro leads Cuba to victory as Fulgencio Batista flees to Dom Rep
1959
Chad becomes autonomous republic in French Community
1959
Rohan Kanhai completes 256 vs. India at Calcutta
1958
BOAC Britannia flies London to New York in a record 7h57m
1958
European Economic Community, known as the Common Market, starts operation
1958
Sammy Davis, Jr. marries Loray White
1958
WMBD TV channel 31 in Peoria, IL (CBS) begins broadcasting
1957
Benjamin Britten's ballet "Prince and the Pauper," premieres in London
1957
France returns Saar to becomes the 10th state of German Federal Rep
1956
Elvis Presley records Heartbreak Hotel for RCA in Nashville
1956
KHAS TV channel 5 in Hastings, NB (NBC) begins broadcasting
1956
KOSA TV channel 7 in Odessa, Texas (CBS) begins broadcasting
1956
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan) declares independence from Egypt and U.K.
1956
WREC (now WREG) TV channel 3 in Memphis, Tennessee (CBS) begins broadcasting
1955
Bhutan issues its 1st postage stamps
1955
WEAT (now WPEC) TV channel 12 in West Palm Beach, Florida (CBS) begins
1954
KSLA TV channel 12 in Shreveport, LA (CBS) begins broadcasting
1954
Rose and Cotton Bowl are 1st sports colorcasts
1954
WWTV TV channel 9 in Cadillac-Traverse City, MI (CBS) 1st broadcast
1954
Yugoslav parliament chairman/Vice President Milovan Djilas criticize communism
1953
Ernest Blochs "Suite Hebraique," premieres
1953
WBRE TV channel 28 in Wilkes-Barre Scranton, Pennsylvania (NBC) 1st broadcast
1952
Dmitri Shostakovich completes his 5th string quartet
1951
Massive Chinese/North Korean assault on UN-lines
1950
Ho Chi Minh begins offensive against French troops in Indo China
1949
KPRC TV channel 2 in Houston, Texas (NBC) begins broadcasting
1949
KTTV TV channel 11 in Los Angeles, California (MET) begins broadcasting
1949
Tokelau (Union) Islands declared part of New Zealand
1948
1st color newsreel filmed in Pasadena, California
1948
Bradman scores 132 in the 1st innings of the 3rd Test vs. India
1948
Britain nationalizes its railways
1948
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade effective
1948
Italy adopts constitution
1948
Orissa province accedes to India
1947
Benelux agress to work related issues
1947
Britain nationalizes its coal industry
1947
WTTG TV channel 5 in Washington, D.C. (MET) begins broadcasting
1946
ENIAC, U.S. 1st computer finished by Mauchly/Eckert
1946
Emperor Hirohito of Japan announces he is not a god
1946
National Assembly proclaims Hungary a republic
1945
France joins the UN
1945
German air raid on allied airports at Eindhoven/Saint-Trond/Brussels
1944
1st feature-length foreign movie, African Journey, shown on TV, New York City
1944
Army defeats Navy 10-7 in football "Arab Bowl," Oran, North Africa
1944
General Clark replaces General Patton as commander of 7th Army
1943
Count Claus von Stauffenberg promoted to Lt-colonel
1942
Rose Bowl played in North Carolina due to Japanese threat, Oregon - 20, Duke - 16
1942
U.S. and 25 other countries sign a united declaration against the Axis
1941
Netherlands begins taxing wages
1941
Russian general Zhukov appointed chief of general staff
1937
Anastasio Somoza becomes president of Nicaragua
1937
Count Claus von Stauffenberg promoted to captain
1937
U.S. Army Air Corps physiological research laboratory completed, Ohio
1936
1st newspaper to microfilm its current issues, New York Herald Tribune
1935
1st Sugar Bowl and 1st Orange Bowl
1935
Associated Press inaugurates Wirephoto
1935
Eastern Airlines hires Eddie Rickenbacker as General Manager
1935
President Mustapha Kemal Pasha names himself "Ataturk: Father of Turkey"
1934
Alcatraz officially becomes a federal prison
1934
Federal Deposit Insurance Corp, FDIC, U.S. bank guarantor, effective
1934
International Telecommunication Union established
1932
Jacob Cocey Sr chosen as mayor of Massillon Ohio
1932
Rasse und Siedlungshauptamt publishes Himmler's wedding laws
1930
Earl Claus von Stauffenberg promoted to 2nd lieutenant
1930
Jurgens and Van den Berg merge with Lever Brothers to form Unilever
1929
Roy Riegels runs 60 yards the wrong way with Rose Bowl fumble recovery
1928
1st U.S. air-conditioned office building opens, San Antonio
1928
Algemeene Vereeniging Radio Omroep (AVRO) begins broadcasting (Netherlands)
1927
Communist uprising in West Java
1927
Dodgers announce release of future Hall of Fame Zack Wheat
1926
Flood in Rhine strikes Cologne
1925
Norway's capital Christiania changes name to Oslo
1924
Grossdeutsche Volksgemeinschaft/Volkische Block replaces NSDAP
1923
Union of Socialist Soviet Republics established
1922
Vancouver, BC starts driving on the right side of road
1919
Belorussian SSR established
1918
Last day of the Julian calendar in Finland
1916
1st football game in Rose Bowl, Washington State vs. Brown
1915
DW Griffith shows "Clansman" at a sneak preview
1915
Jews of Laibach Austria expelled
1914
1st scheduled airline flight, St. Petersburg-Tampa (Tony Jannus pilot)
1914
Klaas ter Laan becomes Netherlands 1st socialist mayor (Zaandam)
1914
Northern and Southern Nigeria united in British colony of Nigeria
1913
Post office begins parcel post deliveries
1912
1st running of San Francisco's famed "Bay to Breakers" race, 7.63 miles / 12.3 km
1912
Sun Yat-sen forms Chinese Republic
1911
Belgian Mining law introduces 9 -hour work day
1911
South Australia transfers Northern Territory to federal government
1910
Simpson-Hayward (England) takes 6-43 on debut with underarm lobs
1909
Robert Fowler runs then world record marathon (2:52:45.4)
1908
1st time, ball signifying new year dropped at Times Square
1908
Jack Hobbs makes his Test debut at the MCG (83 and 28)
1907
President Theodore Roosevelt shakes a record 8,513 hands in 1 day
1906
Dutch law makes driver's license mandatory
1905
9 hour work day for diamond miners
1904
Netherlands Indies colony begins opium production
1902
1st Rose Bowl game in Pasadena, California, University of Michigan - 49, Sanford - 0
1902
Nathan Stubblefield makes 1st public demonstration of radio, Penn
1901
Australia declares independence from federation of U.K. colonies
1901
Commonwealth of Australia established
1900
1st date in John dos Passos' USA trilogy (The 42nd Parallel)
1900
British protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria established
1900
Compulsory education in Netherlands goes into effect
1899
Cuba liberated from Spain by U.S., known as National Day, U.S. occupies until 1902
1898
Lightship replaces whistling buoy at mouth of San Francisco Bay
1898
d'Annunzio's "Sogno d'un mattino di primavera," premieres in Rome
1897
1st football game between black colleges-Atlanta U 10, Tuskegee 0
1897
Brooklyn merges with New York to form present City of New York
1896
Wilhelm Rontgen announces his discovery of x-rays
1895
Norway adopts Mid-European time
1894
Denmark adopts Mid-European time
1894
Manchester Ship Canal in England opens to traffic
1893
1st U.S. college extension courses for credit, University of Chicago
1893
Japan adopts the Gregorian calendar
1892
Ellis Island becomes reception center for new immigrants
1891
French troops occupy Nioro, West-Sudan, 3000 killed
1891
King Pakketvaart sails to Netherlands Indies
1886
1st Tournament of Roses (Pasadena California)
1881
Dr. John H Watson is introduced to Sherlock Holmes
1880
Building of Panama Canal, begins
1879
John Brahms' Violin Concerto in D major premieres in Leipzig
1877
England's Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India
1874
New York City annexes the Bronx
1873
Origin of Japanese Era
1871
Belgium disbands salt tax
1863
President Lincoln declares slavery in Confederate states unlawful
1863
1st homestead under the Homestead Act claimed, near Beatrice, Nebr
1863
Battle of Galveston, Texas-Confederates recapture the city
1863
Battle of Helena, AK
1863
Emancipation Proclamation issued by Abraham Lincoln
1863
Franz Schuberts "Missa Solemnis," premieres in Leipzig
1862
1st U.S. income tax (3% of incomes > $600, 5% of incomes > $10,000)
1862
Battle of Ft. McRee, Florida Battle of Port Royal, South Carolina (Port Royal Ferry)
1861
Porfirio Diaz conquers Mexico City
1860
Slavery ends of in Netherlands Indies
1858
Canada begins using decimal currency system
1854
Lincoln University, a black college, chartered (Oxford, Penn)
1853
1st practical fire engine (horse-drawn) in U.S. enters service
1852
1st U.S. public bath opens, in New York City
1852
Netherlands begins issuing postage stamps
1851
City of Glasgow steamer inaugurates Philadelphia-Liverpool line
1848
Britain takes Mosquito Coast from Nicaragua
1847
Michigan is 1st state to abolish capital punishment
1847
Netherlands Haarlem's Current newspaper starts publishing
1846
Yucatan declares independence from Mexico
1844
1st edition of New Rotterdam's Daily (3x per week)
1842
1st illustrated weekly magazine in U.S. publishes 1st issue, New York City
1840
1st recorded bowling match in U.S., Knickerbocker Alleys, New York City
1838
1st official horse race in South Australia-Adelaide
1834
German Tolunie goes into effect
1833
British government demands Falkland islands
1833
Curaeao census: 2,602 whites, 6,531 free people and 5,894 slaves
1831
William Lloyd Garrison publishes 1st issue of abolitionist journal
1827
Dutch Trade Company NHM gets opium monopoly on Java
1826
Baron Van der Capellen resigns as governor of Dutch-Indies
1818
Official reopening of the White House
1814
Field marshal Blucher's troops cross the Rhine at Kaub
1809
Holland Brigade under Brigadier General Chasse reaches Madrid
1808
African Benevolent Society (education) forms
1808
Congress prohibits importation of slaves
1808
Sierra Leone becomes a British colony
1807
Curacao is taken by English, until March, 1816
1804
Haiti gains independence from France (National Day)
1801
Ireland and Great Britain, England and Scotland, form United Kingdom
1801
Giuseppe Piazzi discovers 1st asteroid, which is named Ceres later
1801
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established
1800
Dutch East Indies Company dissolves
1798
Russia appoints 1st Jewish censor to censor Hebrew books
1797
Albany replaces New York City as capital of NY
1788
London's Daily Universal Registrar becomes the Times
1788
Quakers in Pennsylvania emancipate their slaves
1785
"Daily Universal Register" (Times of London) publishes 1st issue
1776
General George Washington hoists Continental Union Flag
1772
1st traveller's checks issued (London)
1770
Date of action in the opera "Madeleine"
1739
J B C Bouvet de Lozier discovers Bouvet Island, near Antarctica
1707
Jacob V succeeds his father Pedro II as king of Portugal
1701
Great Britain and Ireland union is in effect, creating United Kingdom
1700
Protestant West-Europe (except England) begin using Gregorian calendar
1700
Russia replaces Byzantines with Julian calendar
1689
Pro-James II-earl of Danby occupies York
1675
Don Carlos de Gurrea/Aragon becomes Spanish land guardian of S Netherlands
1673
Regular mail delivery begins between New York and Boston
1672
Jean Racine's "Bajazet," premieres in Paris
1660
1st entry in Samuel Pepys' diary
1660
General Moncks army battles with the Tweed on way to London
1660
Thomas Fairfax' New Model-army occupies York
1651
Charles II Stuart crowned king of Scotland
1622
Papal Chancery adopts Jan 1 as beginning of the year (was Mar 25)
1610
German astronomer Simon Marius 1st discovers the Jupiter moons, but does not officially report it, Galileo does on July 1 1610
1583
1st day of the Gregorian calendar in Holland and Flanders
1573
Geuzen sets fire to Woudrichem
1515
Francois, Duke of Angoulame succeeds Louis XII as Francois I of France
1515
Jews are expelled from Laibach Austria
1504
King Louis XII loses last bulwark in Naples, Caeta
1502
Portuguese navigators discover Rio de Janeiro
1494
Juw Dekama elected potentate of Frisia
1438
Albrecht II von Habsburg becomes king of Hungary
1430
Jews of Sicily are no longer required to attend conversionist services
990
Russia adopts Julian calendar
722
Hofmeier Charles Martel flees from bishop Willibrord
414
King Ataulf of Narbonne marries emperor Honorius sister Galle Placidia
404
Last gladiator competition in Rome
313
Start of Roman (Pontifical) Indiction
89
Governor Lucius Antonius Saturninus of Germany becomes emperor of Rome
69
Roman garrison of Mainz uprising